Sapporo virus symptoms

Sapovirus is a single-stranded RNA virus that belongs to the family Caliciviridae. It has been detected in shellfish and environmental water samples.

Sapovirus can cause acute gastroenteritis in children and adults. Gastroenteritis outbreaks due to sapovirus have been reported in various settings such as child care centres, kindergartens, nursing homes, restaurants and schools.

National Center for Biotechnology Information , U. BMC Infect Dis. Published online Sep Author information Article notes Copyright and License information Disclaimer. Corresponding author. Rachel M Lee: ude. Received Mar 6; Accepted Sep This article has been cited by other articles in PMC.

Methods In a systematic review of the literature on five enteric viruses of public health importance, we found articles with incubation period estimates, including 33 with data for pooled analysis. Results We fit a log-normal distribution to pooled data and found the median incubation period to be 4.

Conclusions Our estimates combine published data and provide sufficient quantitative detail to allow for these estimates to be used in a wide range of clinical and modeling applications. Background Acute viral gastroenteritis is an important and often unappreciated cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Methods This systematic review generally followed the methods described in Lessler et al. Data abstraction Statements of the incubation period and individual-level data suitable for pooled analysis were abstracted as described in Lessler et al.

Pooled analysis Sartwell and others have shown that the natural logarithm of incubation periods of acute infectious diseases tend to follow a normal distribution; hence the incubation period follows a log-normal distribution specified by the median incubation period and a dispersion factor [ 20 , 24 - 26 ]. Results We identified articles with one or more statements of incubation period Figure 1. Open in a separate window.

Figure 1. Table 1 Summary of incubation period estimates in published literature. Table 2 Studies included in pooled analysis. Outbreak associated with eating lunch at a restaurant on a field trip Isakbaeva et al. Figure 2. Table 3 Percentiles of the time of symptom onset and dispersion for disease distributions. Figure 3. Cumulative distributions of the incubation period and latent period data.

Astrovirus Astrovirus is transmitted by the fecal-oral route [ 22 ]. Caliciviruses The caliciviruses i. Genogroup I Based on 1, observations from ten observational studies, and five observations from one experimental study [ 33 ], we estimate the median incubation period for genogroup I noroviruses to be 1. Genogroup II Based on ten observations from two experimental studies [ 43 , 51 ] and 1, estimates from ten observational studies [ 46 , 49 ], we estimate the median incubation period for genogroup II noroviruses to be 1.

Sapoviruses Sapoviruses primarily cause gastroenteritis in infants and children, and are not important pathogens in foodborne outbreaks [ 68 ]. Rotavirus Rotavirus is transmitted by the fecal-oral route [ 22 , 72 ]. Discussion Estimations of the incubation period of infectious diseases including gastroenteritis are critical to assure rationale, evidence based interventions to abort ongoing transmission.

Conclusion Following our work estimating the incubation period of respiratory viruses [ 20 ], in this review we combined published data to estimate the incubation periods for five enteric viruses of public health importance. Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Supplementary Material Additional file 1: Comparison of log-normal, gamma, Weibull, and Ehrling distributions.

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J Pediatr. Norwalk gastrointestinal illness: an outbreak associated with swimming in a recreational lake and secondary person-to-person transmission. Transmission of Norwalk virus during football game.

Transmission of acute infectious nonbacterial gastroenteritis to volunteers by oral administration of stool filtrates. Epidemic of gastroenteritis caused by oysters contaminated with small round structured viruses.

An outbreak of viral gastroenteritis following a wedding reception. Norovirus outbreak among primary schoolchildren who had played in a recreational water fountain. Norwalk gastroenteritis: a community outbreak associated with bakery product consumption. Ann Intern Med. The Darwin outbreak of oyster-associated viral gastroenteritis. Med J Aust. Infants and young children often exhibit clinical symptoms, while neonatal infections are often subclinical.

Adults and elderly patients rarely experience outbreaks. Outbreaks among adults and the elderly might be associated with waning immunity. Comparing Sapporo to other "diarrhea viruses" it is suggested that Sapporo replicates in the mucosal cells that line the villi of the small intestine. These measurements included basic hygiene and sanitation measures. A clean water supply is central in the prevention of outbreaks. Relative to age, injections performed outside the home had a greater effect on infection symptoms at the injection site.

It is possible that skin conditions might be incorrectly interpreted by the patient as an infection symptom, such as bruising that is related to a poor puncture technique [ 7 ]. In this context, patients may be motivated to perform injections as rapidly as possible when in public settings, which may reduce their likelihood of adhering to safe injection practices [ 24 , 25 ]. Although those studies considered people who inject non-therapeutic drugs, it is possible that patients who self-inject insulin might have similar experiences when performing injections outside their homes.

Approximately one-half of our patients who performed injections outside their homes performed the injection in a washroom, which agrees with the proportion Thus, washrooms appear to be a popular out-of-home location for injections, which may contribute to a poor environment or poor injection technique that ultimately leads to local skin problems.

However, further study about the association of the detailed environment, administration conditions, and administration methods with signs of infection at the injection site are warranted. These studies may be associated with improved quality of life among patients who perform insulin self-injections for diabetes. The limitations of the current study are subjectiveness, small sample size, and generalizability. Therefore, it is difficult to draw definitive conclusions; further research including a larger sample is necessary to reduce uncertainty and conclude on the effects of omitting skin disinfection before subcutaneous injection.

Identification of signs of infection was not determined by experts, and the data were self-reported by the patient, not from medical records. Recall bias is a significant issue in studies that have self-reporting. The self-administered questionnaire could not differentiate between true infection symptoms and other local events, such as bruising that was related to a poor puncture technique and allergic reactions.

Thus, it is possible that our patients reported events that were local allergic reactions, rather than symptoms of skin infection, although it is important to note that the omission of skin disinfection was not associated with skin infection.

However, as this was a cross-sectional study, causality was not clear and there might have been a possibility of reverse causality. Further studies using longitudinal studies are needed to clarify the causal relationship. We found that infection at the injection site was positively correlated with skin disinfection before injection, age, and performing injections outside home, and the greatest contributor to infection symptoms was injections performed outside the home in Japanese patients who self-inject insulin for diabetes.

Omitting skin disinfection before the insulin injection was not the factor that affects symptoms of injection site infection. Conceptualization, Y. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study, collection, analyses, or interpretation of data, writing of the manuscript, or decision to publish the results. National Center for Biotechnology Information , U.

Journal List Healthcare Basel v. Healthcare Basel. Published online Apr 1. Author information Article notes Copyright and License information Disclaimer. Received Feb 10; Accepted Mar Associated Data Data Availability Statement The author has no permission for providing the data currently.

Abstract In Japan, skin disinfection is typically considered necessary before an insulin injection to prevent infection at the injection site.

Keywords: disinfection, diabetes mellitus, infections, skin, subcutaneous injections. Introduction Skin disinfection before injection is a common procedure that is performed based on the idea that the needle disrupts the skin and creates a risk of infection from bacteria entering the body. Materials and Methods 2. Study Design This observational cross-sectional study evaluated Japanese patients who self-injected insulin for diabetes to determine whether the omission of pre-injection skin disinfection was associated with infection symptoms at the injection site.

Participants Convenience sampling was used to select participants from three hospitals in Sapporo between October and January Questionnaire Development A self-administered questionnaire was developed with reference to previous studies [ 14 , 17 ] and several discussions among researchers.

Clinical and Demographic Characteristics 7 Items Data were also collected regarding patient age, sex, employment status, duration of diabetes, type of diabetes, most recent HbA1c concentration, and number of injections per day, as a high number of injections would presumably increase the risk of infection.

Injection Site Disinfection Practice 2 Items Participants were asked to identify their skin disinfection practices using a 5-point Likert scale scores ranging from 1 rarely to 5 always. Infection Experience 2 Items Participants were asked if they ever experienced an infection at the injection site.

Safety Issues 4 Items Hygiene habits bathing or showering frequency were evaluated because the World Health Organization guidelines [ 2 ] indicate that skin disinfection is unnecessary before subcutaneous injection if the patient has adequate hygiene. Ethics The participants voluntarily participated in the study. Table 1 Univariate analyses of clinicodemographic characteristics according to disinfection habit.

Open in a separate window. Table 2 Univariate analyses of clinicodemographic characteristics according to infection symptoms. Table 3 Multivariable logistic regression analyses of factors associated with infection symptoms. Discussion This study aimed to clarify whether Japanese patients with diabetes performed skin disinfection before insulin self-injections, as well as evaluate other factors that were associated with infection at the injection site to critically evaluate the necessity of pre-injection skin preparation.

Limitations The limitations of the current study are subjectiveness, small sample size, and generalizability. Conclusions We found that infection at the injection site was positively correlated with skin disinfection before injection, age, and performing injections outside home, and the greatest contributor to infection symptoms was injections performed outside the home in Japanese patients who self-inject insulin for diabetes. Author Contributions Conceptualization, Y. Informed Consent Statement Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement The author has no permission for providing the data currently. Conflicts of Interest The authors declare no conflict of interest.